Using fire as a weapon is an ancient invention and this use had continued in refined and less refined forms for ages. Filling bottles with easily flammable liquid and throwing enemy with them was not new in any way either. In fact such bottles had been used as antitank weapon at least in Abyssinian War and Spanish Civil War already earlier in 1930's. However, generally speaking earlier petrol bombs were very simple compared to refined Finnish factory-produced versions. When petrol bombs had been first used in Abyssinia they had been simply filled with alcohol or petrol and had been used by first throwing the bottle and then throwing burning piece of fabric tied to stick after it. With this method both throws needed to hit the target for achieving the wanted result. Petrol bombs of Spanish Civil War were simpler to use then the ones earlier used in Abyssinia. The bottles were still alcohol or petrol filled, but now a piece of fabric tied to the bottle was just set on fire before throwing. Thanks to this now the target needed to be to hit only once. The first unit to use petrol bombs as antitank weapons in Spanish Civil War was Spanish Foreign Legion fighting in Nationalist side in autumn of 1936.

PICTURE: Finnish Molotov cocktail with storm matches. Time has made its thing and the mix is no longer well mixed up - when new the colour of mix was black. If the mix in this particular bottle is the real thing the reason for the discoloration is tar getting settled on bottom of the bottle. Notice that the storm matches have been isolated from the glass bottle by putting pieces of tape between them - this was made because heat of the burning matches could otherwise crack the bottle prematurely. (Photo taken in Panssarimuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (39 KB).

By late 1930's Finnish military had become aware that infantry needed some antitank weaponry of its own. Finnish military was planning antitank rifles for this use, but as introducing them was delayed also other alternatives were considered. Some Finns had considered petrol-bombs already early on, like for example Sergeant Major Johan Valli from PPP 2 (Bicycle Battalion 2) tested petrol-bomb like weapon already in 1932. But it was Captain (later: Major) Eero Kuittinen with his modest development team, who can be really credited for development of Finnish molotov cocktail. During spring of 1937 Kuittinen with help of his friend merchant Väinö Hannula and three 2nd Lieutenants started developing new version based to the petrol bombs used in Spanish Civil War. The first version they tested was simple bottle filled with petrol and piece of cotton waste tied into it and proved not so good. The main problems with it were:

• The liquid didn't stick to target, but flowed away too easily.
• Burning cotton waste made person throwing the bottle very easy to spot.

Adding tar to mix (about 10 - 20 cl for each half-litre bottle) proved good solution to first problem, it not only made mix to stick target, but also created more smoke. Other bonuses of this mix were that the fire lasted longer and burned with higher temperature. Two ignition methods for setting the liquid on fire were developed:

• "Storm match" solution: Match factory in town of Lahti manufactured 12-cm long sparklers called "storm matches" (also known as "Bengal matches" in some countries), these burned about 60 seconds after being lit. Two "storm matches" were simply taped to opposite sides of bottle with insulating tape and once the matches were lit, the user had about 60 seconds to throw his molotov cocktail. Also Engineer Salomaa from match factory participated in tests of this ignition system. Kuittinen and his development team seem to have succeeded developing this version by spring of 1939. The "storm match"-version were mostly used in molotov cocktails of Winter War (around 80% of molotov cocktails manufactured during Winter War used this ignition method) and presumably production of molotov cocktails equipped with storm matches ended with Winter War.
• Long fragile glass ampoule filled with self-igniting material (sulphuric acid or white phosphorus in carbon disulphide) installed inside the bottle. As the bottle broke the fragile glass ampoule broke also and it's contents set the liquid on fire. This ignition method was designed by Finnish Defence Ministry Planning Office during Winter War. But the ignition method used may have been originally brain-child of A.I. Virtanen (famous Finnish chemist and winner of Nobel price), who got the idea from fuses used in Russian naval mines. Molotov cocktails equipped with it were also known as "A-pullo" ("A-bottle"). About 20% of molotov cocktails manufactured during Winter War had this ignition method and it seems to have became the standard ignition method for Finnish molotov cocktails manufactured after Winter War.

PICTURE: Another sample of Finnish Molotov cocktail with storm matches. Notice also the metal wire used to further secure the storm matches. Colour of liquid is off in this bottle either - either the original has been replaced or some chemical process had changed the colour from original black to something to this yellow with brownish layer in bottom of the bottle. (Photo taken in Sotamuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (42 KB).

Also Riihimäki glass factory had its part in development team of Finnish molotov cocktail as it delivered several bottle types for tests of molotov cocktails. Bottles made especially for the purpose were also tested. But the normal 500-ml (half-litre) bottle taken to production in 1934 for strong alcohol drinks proved best in these tests and became the standard bottle used in mass-production of molotov cocktails. The bottle was glass bottle with 26,5-cm height and 6,8-cm diameter. The cork used early on was aluminium with seal capsule, later it was replaced with bakelite cork. When bottles were mass-manufactured with semiautomatic and full-automatic machinery manufacturing them in large quantities was both cheap and easy.

How did the first official version of molotov cocktail (the "storm match"-version) spread to knowledge of Finnish soldiers? It may have been included already to short manuals of Engineer Corps in January or February of 1939. What is known for a certain is that it was included to manual called "Pion. Tekn. ohjeita N:o 1" (Sapper Technical Instructions number 1) published in August of 1939. However it being mentioned in some manual does not equal for it being common knowledge. The grand majority of Finnish soldiers did not become familiar with this new weapon first known as "polttopullo" (literally translated: "burning bottle") until during Winter War.

Before the war Finnish military had planned to manufacture molotov cocktails by hand in few small plants reserved for this. Few weeks before breaking out of Winter War Finnish military started making preparations for molotov cocktail production by buying large amounts of glass bottles for this purpose. Finnish military had organised five bottling plants of its own for the work. These were presumably somewhat similar as one located in Sorvali near Viipuri. In Sorvali plant 40 women were manufacturing molotov cocktails to 2^nd Army Corps under leadership of 2^nd Lieutenant Kauko Lehtonen. But as the war started the shear volume of needed molotov cocktails proved overwhelming for these small plans to manufacture them.

However, buying large amounts of empty alcohol bottles got Alko (Finnish alcohol monopoly, state owned company, which was the only company allowed to sell alcohol in Finland) interested. This interest lead to fruitful co-operation between Alko and Finnish Army as Alko's bottling plants had several production lines with effective bottle filling machinery. This machinery was able to fill tens of thousands of molotov cocktails per day. Once Finnish military became aware of this possibility of using Alko bottling plant for the molotov cocktail production Finnish Defence Minister Juho Niukkanen effectively cut the red tape by directly ordering Alko to bottle 40,000 bottles with molotov cocktail mix immediately. Rajamäki plant of Alko hired 87 women plus 5 men and started making molotov cocktails 24-hours a day. This first order of 40,000 molotov cocktails was filled in only couple of days and the first deliveries from Rajamäki plant seem to have arrived to frontline in first part of December 1939. Other parts of manufacturing process were done in Vuorela hill and in town of Riihimäki. Finnish troops had shortage of better antitank weapons, but thanks to Alko's Riihimäki bottling plant and other parts of production line Finnish troops in least had enough molotov cocktails in their disposal. During Winter War Alko's Rajamäki plant filled 542,194 bottles with molotov cocktail mix. Also other smaller plants manufactured molotov cocktails, but their production numbers were very small compared to this one large bottling plant.

During production molotov cocktail mix was developed and tested further. The winning mix, which became the standard mix of Alko's Rajamäki bottling plant was:

• 60 % potassium chlorate
• 32 % tar
• 8 % noulee

According pre-war instructions of Finnish Army the preferred method for using molotov cocktail was throwing it to front armour of the tank and blinding the tank with smoke coming from burning molotov cocktail mix (idea that this improved changes of using satchel charge or mine to destroy tank). But Finnish soldiers soon realised that top of tank's engine was much better target. Tanks that the Soviets commonly used in Winter War all had petrol engines and openings upwards from engine room. Molotov cocktail thrown on back deck of tank spilled its liquid on top of the hot engine through these openings, if the mix was not in fire already then the hot engine set it on fire. Tank engine rooms being what they were, tanks engine being Soviet "quality" and Soviet tankers maintaining the tanks being who they were, the tanks engine room had grease, petrol, oil and other materials which molotov cocktail also set on fire. As if loosing engine in fire was not enough, in some Soviet tanks (like T-26 series) air intake system led fire right to area where the crew was. When this happened the tank crew was forced to take unhappy choice: Either to burn death inside the tank or get out fast and face Finnish infantry waiting for them to pop out.

PICTURE: Drawing showing parts of tank, which Finns targeted with molotov cocktails. The tank in the drawing is T-26, which was especially vulnerable to molotov cocktail attack due to its structural design. CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (42 KB).

Molotov cocktail proved immediately effective weapon against Soviet tanks in Finnish hands when introduced to use in early December of 1939. It wasn't a super-weapon and didn't change the course of war, but it atleast gave infantry lacking other antitank-support a small fighting chance against tanks. And in many situations having at least something to hit back with is what makes the true difference is fighting moral. Using molotov cocktail demanded Finnish infantry to get close to enemy tanks, so more cover the terrain offered, easier they were to use. Open terrain and daylight were not so good places for using molotov cocktails. The Soviets also learned some lessons and made changes to their tactics: Their tanks started covering each other and tried to avoid going too close Finnish trenches or terrain that offered too good places for Finnish infantry to hide. The Soviets also tried increasing changes of molotov cocktail not breaking by adding tree branches or wire mesh on top of their tanks, but Finns returned effectively in this minor armaments race. Two or three stones connected to bottle of molotov cocktail with strings made sure was shattered, even if there were tree branches to soften up its hit and adding some barb-wire around the bottle made sure it stuck to mesh. During Winter War the weapon got its famous name "molotov cocktail", however its not certain if the term was Finnish invention or invented by foreign journalists working in Finland during the war. In either case the person it was named after was the Soviet foreign Minister Molotov, who did not exactly belong among Finnish favourites. During Continuation War molotov cocktail remained as part of Finnish antitank weaponry, but the new Soviet tanks were less vulnerable to molotov cocktails. New tanks like KV-series and T-34 proved so difficult to destroy with molotov cocktail that in practical use first satchel charges and later in 1944 Panzerfaust took their role and slowly but certainly replaced them in use during Continuation War. Information from successful Finnish use of molotov-cocktails was widely published by international press during Winter War, this might have influenced to some other countries, which soon also introduced molotov cocktails in their antitank weaponry.

Molotov cocktails developed and/or used by some other countries during WW2:

• Britain:
• Petrol bomb: British 1940 development used edged whisky bottle and strap of film tied around the neck of the bottle as method of ignition.
• Germany:
• "Brandflasche": Glass bottle 25-cm high and 7-cm wide filled with mix of flame-thrower fuel (one third) and gasoline (two thirds). Mass-produced.
• "Brand hand grenade 48/57": Glass container filled with half-a-litre of mix made from benzone and gasoline. Mass produced.
• Soviet Union:
• Soviets officially introduced molotov cocktail in their weaponry in November of 1941. They used multitude of bottles (0,5 - 0,75 litre water/beer bottles) with large variety of ignition methods ("storm match" like, glass ampoule, metallic ignition system, self-igniting liquid etc...).

Idea of special bottle designed specifically to create as much as smoke as possible had existed already during developing of molotov cocktail, but at that time there had been no resources for that available. Unlike bottle used in molotov cocktail blinding bottle had its own special bottle shaped specifically to give better grip for throwing. This special bottle also had same kind of bottom like in champagne bottles and inside bottle in middle of bottom was place for glass ampoule filled with self-igniting (acid-like) material. Glass bottles needed were manufactured by factory "Riihimäen Lasi Oy". Using method was simply to throw the bottle to front hull of enemy tank, after this the black smoke coming from burning liquid would momentarily drop visibility from inside the tank pretty close to zero for its crew and make destroying the tank with other weapons easier. The blinding bottles were were delivered in cartboard carrying boxes, which each contained 3 bottles. Larger transport boxes each contained 5 carrying boxes (in other words: 15 bottles per transport box). The self-igniting ampoules were transported in seperate boxes, which each contained 20 ampoules.

The basic principle of satchel charge wasn't new either. Using packages of explosives with against armoured vehicles was just expansion of the earlier uses. In its most primitive form satchel charge could be just bundle of dynamite detonated with fuse wire detonator. German Army had used bundles of stick hand grenades as antitank weapons already during World War 1 and the Finns seem to have been at least somewhat familiar with using bundles of stick hand grenades (reportedly Finnish White Army used them for demolition during Finnish Civil War in year 1918). So, Finnish military was aware of these grenade bundles already before domestic development of satchel charge begun.

At year 1936 Captain Kaarlo Tuurna of Engineer Battalion started testing explosives against armour. He came to conclusion that 500 grams of TNT (trinitrotoluene) was enough to break 12-mm thick armour plate if pressed against it. The conclusion was that satchel charge with explosive charge corresponding 800 grams of TNT was the smallest practical useful size. This equalled well to bundle of six old German M/16 stick hand grenades:

6 x stick hand grenade M/16 á 125 grams of TNT = 750 grams of TNT

In many countries (like Germany) the basic satchel charge didn't develop beyond this bundle of "potato smashers", but in Finland this served merely as the starting point of development. Finnish infantry used satchel charges both in Winter War and Continuation War in huge numbers. Finnish satchel charges can be roughly divided to two categories:

These were manufactured in three sizes:

• 2 kg satchel charge (with 2 kg of TNT)
• 3 kg satchel charge (with 3 kg of TNT)
• 4 kg satchel charge (with 4 kg of TNT)

PICTURE: Finnish factory-made satchel charge without hooks. Detonator and handle used in this one seem to to be from Finnish stick hand grenade M/41. The marking "5sek" in the handle indicates that this satchel charge has 5-second fuse. (Photo taken in Maneesi of Sotamuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (29 B).

When Finns first started mass-production of satchel charges in December of 1939 the fuse system used in them was not so sophisticated but reliable: Detonator number 8 with 4,5-cm long fuse wire, which had a piece of sulphur (similar as used in ordinary matches) cast in its end. This fuse had been coated with paraffin to protect it from moisture. This special fuse type nicknamed "tikkukaramelli" (="lollipop") was used in satchel charges manufactured in December of 1939 and in January of 1940. During those two months around 250,000 - 300,000 of these fuses were manufactured for satchel charges. Soon "Tikkukaramelli"-fuse was replaced with stick handgrenade fuses more commonly used in Finnish satchel charges.

End of January 1940 the Finns adopted the handle and detonator part of domestic stick hand grenade M/32 as triggering system of satchel charge. With their simple and effective structure and 5.5 second delay these parts of M/32 stick hand grenade suited well to be used with satchel charges. Later also detonator and handle parts of Finnish stick hand grenade M/41, which also had 5,5-second delay, were used as detonators of factory-made satchel charges. Presumably also detonator and handle parts of German Sa/24 stick hand grenades (about half-a-million of which were bought from Germany during Continuation War) were used in this way.

PICTURE: Drawing showing structure of Finnish stick hand grenade M/32. While Finnish stick hand grenade resembles the German ones it was smaller and has the belt hook, which the Germans eliminated from their stick hand grenade designs after World War 1. As visible the fuse is impact-type with delay offered by the blackpowder burning in the gunpowder tube. CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (28 B).

The main explosive charge in factory-produced Finnish satchel charge was thin sheet metal box filled with TNT. Thin sheet metal used around the explosives produced very little effective shrapnel, making the weapon quite ineffective against infantry on the open ground, but that was also relatively safe to its users, who often had little change to get much cover before the explosion. At the same time it suited well against fortifications and when charge was thrown on top of armour plate it also allowed the explosive energy to transfer somewhat effectively to the armour plate underneath. Finnish military preferred to throw their satchel charges on top of the tank engine. The charge could also be thrown under or on top of the track, but as this demanded more precise timing and usually did less damage, so it was less popular. The thin sheet-metal box with stick hand grenade handle & detonator version went to mass production during Winter War and remained in large-scale use of Finnish infantry until end of World War 2.

Measurements of Finnish factory-made satchel charges:

• Length of whole satchel charge: 42.8 cm
• Size of metal box containing TNT-charge: 6.5 cm x 11.2 cm x 21.8 cm
• Length of (stick hand grenade) handle: 21.0 cm

• Length of whole satchel charge: 41.0 cm
• Size of metal box containing TNT-charge: 8.2 cm x 13.3 cm x 20.0 cm
• Length of of (stick hand grenade) handle: 21.0 cm

• Length of whole satchel charge: 38.0 cm
• Size of metal box containing TNT-charge: 10.8 cm x 16.0 cm x 17.0 cm
• Length of of (stick hand grenade) handle: 21.0 cm

PICTURE: Drawing showing parts of tank, which Finns preferred to target with satchel charges. Back deck on top of the engine was usual main target, but tank could also immobilised by throwing satchel charge on top or under its track. CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (28 B).

During Winter War Finnish military also observed effects of various satchel charges used in battle. As a result Chief of Engineers reported Finnish General HQ following in February of 1940:

• 2-kg satchel charge: Effective against armoured vehicles weighting less or around 6 tons (All Soviet armoured cars and amphibious tanks).
• 3-kg satchel charge: Effective against armoured vehicles weighting less or around 12 tons (T-26 series and BT-series tanks)
• 4-kg satchel charge: Effective against armoured vehicles weighting less or around 30 tons (T-28).

During early Winter War Finns also tried satchel charges with sheet metal boxes, which had their long sides coated with special glue. The idea of this was to improve the changes of satchel charges to stay on top of armour plate. The glue-coated parts of these charges were protected with pieces of plywood, which were to be removed just before use. However the battle-use soon revealed that this whole idea was not practicable: In battlefield the glue easily got dirty (after which it didn't really stuck to anything) or it could get stuck to wrong objects (like clothing of the soldier trying to use it). In fact this idea proved so impractical that it was soon buried and Finnish military returned back using only satchel charges which had no glue.

PICTURE: Another Finnish factory-made satchel charge. Detonator and handle used in this one seem to be from German stick hand grenade Sa/24 (Stielhandgranade 24). (Photo taken in Sotamuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (13 B).

Another more successful improvement adopted during production were small metal hooks in front parts of sheet metal box. When Soviets had started covering their tanks with tree branches and wire mesh the hooks improved changes for the satchel charge to get stuck in them. At the same time the hooks made carrying of satchel charges easier as satchel charges could now been hung to a belt or leather strap.

PICTURE: Four Finnish satchel charges. Notice the two in the middle having the previously mentioned hooks. (Photo taken in Jalkaväkimuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (29 B).

These were satchel charges build by soldiers for their own use or use of their own unit. Especially engineer units distinguished themselves in building these when needed. When compared to factory-made ones these varied more in sizes both directions (Typically homemade satchel charges covered all sizes between 1 - 6 kg). The basic explosive used in home-made satchel charges was TNT (trinitrotoluene), which was most powerful easy-to-use explosive used in large amounts by Finnish military during World War 2. The detonation mechanisms varied from charge to charge, but as hand grenade handle & detonator was suitable it was often used also in home-made satchel chages. If handle & detonator parts of stick hand grenade were not used, then usually wooden handle was made and attached to the charge to throwing it easier. 1-kg satchel charge was handy weapon against enemy trenches and capable of damaging tanks track when used skilfully. Large 6-kg satchel charges were effective even against the most thickly armoured Soviet tanks.

PICTURE: Finnish home-made satchel charge build by combining 4 tiles of TNT with Finnish stick hand grenade M/32. (Photo taken in Panssarimuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (25 B).

PICTURE: Another sample of Finnish home-made satchel charge. Some TNT bundled together with Finnish stick hand grenade M/41. (Photo taken in Sotamuseo). CLICK THUMBNAIL TO SEE LARGER PIC (16 B).

SOURCES:

Erkki Käkelä: Marskin Panssarintuhoojat.

Talvisodan historia books series.

Battles of Winter War Website

Eero-Eetu Saarinen: Pioneerijoukkojen historia 1918 - 1968.

Military manual: Käsikranaatit ja kiväärikranaatit. Printed in 1926.

Military manual: P. Huhtala: Jalkaväen ryhmänjohtaja, Opas nuorelle upseerille. Printed in 1932.

Military Manual: Upseerien ja aliupseerien kertaus- ja jatko-opiskelukirja. Printed in 1942.

Military manual: Jalkaväen Ampumatarvikkeet II by Puolustusvoimien Pääesikunta Taisteluvälineosasto.

Military manual: Sokaisupullo/44 (Kss. 1041) (printed 1944)

Heinz Guderian: Achtung - Panzer!

Anthony Beevor: The Spanish Civil War

Article of Keijo Heinonen: Kuka keksi "Molotovin cocktailin?" (Who invented the Molotov Cocktail?) in Asehistoriallinen aikakauskirja 24 (Journal of Military History 24).

Article: Molotovin Cocktail eli polttopullo by Esko O. Toivanen in Ase-lehti magazine vol 4/96.

Article: Sokaisupullo m/44 jatkosodan sotalasia by Esko O. Toivanen in Ase-lehti magazine vol 3/98.

Article: Panssarintorjunta-aseet by Lauri Harvila in Kansa Taisteli magazine vol 10/1976.

Special thanks to Panssarimuseo (Finnish Armour Museum), Parola.

Special thanks to Sotamuseo (Finnish Military Museum), Helsinki.

Special thanks to Jalkaväkimuseo (Finnish Infantry Museum), Mikkeli.